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Association and Causation Discussion
Association and Causation Discussion
Order ID 53003233773 Type Essay Writer Level Masters Style APA Sources/References 4 Perfect Number of Pages to Order 5-10 Pages Description/Paper Instructions
Association and Causation Discussion
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The differences between association and causation. Association is when two variables are related, we say that there is an association between them. When researchers find a correlation, which can also be called an association, what they are saying is that they found a relationship between two, or more, variables. Causal has one variable that has a direct influence on the other, this is called a causal relationship. Causality can only be determined by reasoning about how the data were collected. The data values themselves contain no information that can help you to decide. If two variables are causally related, it is possible to conclude that changes to the explanatory variable, X, will have a direct impact on Y. If one variable causally affects the other, then adjusting the value of that variable will cause the other to change. Obviously, it is much more difficult to prove causation than it is to prove an association.
The Bradford Hill criteria are widely used in epidemiology as a framework with which to assess whether an observed association is likely to be causal. 1. Strength of association, 2. Consistency, 3. Specificity, 4. Temporal sequence, 5. Biological gradient, 6. Biological plausibility, 7. Coherence, 8. Experiment, 9. Analogy. Although widely used, the criteria are not without criticism. Rothman argues that Hill did not propose these criteria as a checklist for evaluating whether a reported association might be interpreted as causal, but they have been widely applied in this way. He contends that the Bradford Hill criteria fail to deliver on the hope of clearly distinguishing causal from non-causal relations. For example, the first criterion ‘strength of association’ does not take into account the fact that not every component cause will have a strong association with the disease it produces, or that strength of association also depends on the prevalence of other factors. In terms of the third criterion, ‘specificity’, which suggests that a relationship is more likely to be causal if the exposure is related to a single outcome, Rothman argues that this criterion is misleading as a cause may have many effects, for example, smoking. The fifth criterion, ‘biological gradient’ suggests that the plausibility of a causal association is increased if a dose-response curve can be demonstrated. However, such relationships may also result from confounding or other biases (Association and Causation, 2018).
If a relationship is causal, four types of causal relationships are possible: (1) necessary and sufficient; (2) necessary, but not sufficient; (3) sufficient, but not necessary; and (4) neither sufficient nor necessary. The aim of this study was to analyze the difference between association and causation, applying the criteria of causality to the specific case of the association between endodontic disease and systemic diseases, taking as an example the case of diabetes mellitus. The association between the outcome of RCT (Root canal treatment) and diabetes seems to fulfill most of Hill’s causation criteria, the design of the studies on which this conclusion is based does not rule out the presence of confounding variables. In particular, the higher percentage of RFT (Root filled teeth) with apical periodontitis and lower retention of RFT teeth in diabetics could reflect not only the success rate of RCT and the healing of AP (Apical periodontitis) but also the incidence of caries and periodontal disease in diabetic subjects. Unfortunately, studies relating these variables (diabetes, caries, periodontal disease, AP, RFT and extractions, including the primary cause of extraction) are lacking. These conclusions should be translated to the clinical practice. Dentists should be aware of the relationship between DM and the outcome of RCT, considering diabetes as a preoperative factor that could influence the outcome of the root canal treatment (Segura?Egea, Cabanillas?Balsera, Jiménez?Sánchez, & Martín?González, 2019).
References
Association and Causation. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-t…
Segura?Egea, J.J., Cabanillas?Balsera, D., Jiménez?Sánchez, M.C., & Martín?González, J. (2019). Endodontics and diabetes: association versus causation. International Endodontic Journal. 52. pp 790– 802. doi.org/10.1111/iej.13079.
Respond to the bold paragraph ABOVE by using one of the option below… in APA format with At least two references and a minimum of 200 words….. .(The List of References should not be older than 2016 and should not be included in the word count.)
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Association and Causation Discussion
RUBRIC
QUALITY OF RESPONSE NO RESPONSE POOR / UNSATISFACTORY SATISFACTORY GOOD EXCELLENT Content (worth a maximum of 50% of the total points) Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. 20 points out of 50: The essay illustrates poor understanding of the relevant material by failing to address or incorrectly addressing the relevant content; failing to identify or inaccurately explaining/defining key concepts/ideas; ignoring or incorrectly explaining key points/claims and the reasoning behind them; and/or incorrectly or inappropriately using terminology; and elements of the response are lacking. 30 points out of 50: The essay illustrates a rudimentary understanding of the relevant material by mentioning but not full explaining the relevant content; identifying some of the key concepts/ideas though failing to fully or accurately explain many of them; using terminology, though sometimes inaccurately or inappropriately; and/or incorporating some key claims/points but failing to explain the reasoning behind them or doing so inaccurately. Elements of the required response may also be lacking. 40 points out of 50: The essay illustrates solid understanding of the relevant material by correctly addressing most of the relevant content; identifying and explaining most of the key concepts/ideas; using correct terminology; explaining the reasoning behind most of the key points/claims; and/or where necessary or useful, substantiating some points with accurate examples. The answer is complete. 50 points: The essay illustrates exemplary understanding of the relevant material by thoroughly and correctly addressing the relevant content; identifying and explaining all of the key concepts/ideas; using correct terminology explaining the reasoning behind key points/claims and substantiating, as necessary/useful, points with several accurate and illuminating examples. No aspects of the required answer are missing. Use of Sources (worth a maximum of 20% of the total points). Zero points: Student failed to include citations and/or references. Or the student failed to submit a final paper. 5 out 20 points: Sources are seldom cited to support statements and/or format of citations are not recognizable as APA 6th Edition format. There are major errors in the formation of the references and citations. And/or there is a major reliance on highly questionable. The Student fails to provide an adequate synthesis of research collected for the paper. 10 out 20 points: References to scholarly sources are occasionally given; many statements seem unsubstantiated. Frequent errors in APA 6th Edition format, leaving the reader confused about the source of the information. There are significant errors of the formation in the references and citations. And/or there is a significant use of highly questionable sources. 15 out 20 points: Credible Scholarly sources are used effectively support claims and are, for the most part, clear and fairly represented. APA 6th Edition is used with only a few minor errors. There are minor errors in reference and/or citations. And/or there is some use of questionable sources. 20 points: Credible scholarly sources are used to give compelling evidence to support claims and are clearly and fairly represented. APA 6th Edition format is used accurately and consistently. The student uses above the maximum required references in the development of the assignment. Grammar (worth maximum of 20% of total points) Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. 5 points out of 20: The paper does not communicate ideas/points clearly due to inappropriate use of terminology and vague language; thoughts and sentences are disjointed or incomprehensible; organization lacking; and/or numerous grammatical, spelling/punctuation errors 10 points out 20: The paper is often unclear and difficult to follow due to some inappropriate terminology and/or vague language; ideas may be fragmented, wandering and/or repetitive; poor organization; and/or some grammatical, spelling, punctuation errors 15 points out of 20: The paper is mostly clear as a result of appropriate use of terminology and minimal vagueness; no tangents and no repetition; fairly good organization; almost perfect grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage. 20 points: The paper is clear, concise, and a pleasure to read as a result of appropriate and precise use of terminology; total coherence of thoughts and presentation and logical organization; and the essay is error free. Structure of the Paper (worth 10% of total points) Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. 3 points out of 10: Student needs to develop better formatting skills. The paper omits significant structural elements required for and APA 6th edition paper. Formatting of the paper has major flaws. The paper does not conform to APA 6th edition requirements whatsoever. 5 points out of 10: Appearance of final paper demonstrates the student’s limited ability to format the paper. There are significant errors in formatting and/or the total omission of major components of an APA 6th edition paper. They can include the omission of the cover page, abstract, and page numbers. Additionally the page has major formatting issues with spacing or paragraph formation. Font size might not conform to size requirements. The student also significantly writes too large or too short of and paper 7 points out of 10: Research paper presents an above-average use of formatting skills. The paper has slight errors within the paper. This can include small errors or omissions with the cover page, abstract, page number, and headers. There could be also slight formatting issues with the document spacing or the font Additionally the paper might slightly exceed or undershoot the specific number of required written pages for the assignment. 10 points: Student provides a high-caliber, formatted paper. This includes an APA 6th edition cover page, abstract, page number, headers and is double spaced in 12’ Times Roman Font. Additionally, the paper conforms to the specific number of required written pages and neither goes over or under the specified length of the paper.
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